Medieval Europe: Continuity and innovation

I The History of Ink

The final centuries of the Roman Empire constituted a period of cultural, social and political transformation, which was intertwined with the Middle Ages. During this period, there was a constant exchange of ideas, beliefs and traditions between Christian culture (of Greco-Roman roots), the Arabs and the Germanic peoples.

A reflection of this fusion of classical traditions and new influences can be found in the materials and instruments associated with writing, which underwent significant development in scriptoria, spaces designated for the copying and production of texts in monasteries and cathedrals. During the Late Antiquity, the use of papyrus as a writing material was gradually superseded by parchment made from animal skins. At the same time, a new format for texts was adopted: the «codex» (or book format), which gradually replaced the scroll or volume until it replaced it. This change in the material and format of writing culminated in the Middle Ages, a period which also saw the arrival of paper, originating from the East and entering the Western world via the Arab culture. The quill, a writing instrument that became particularly popular in the Middle Ages, is probably as old as the calamus. However, its first known mention is in the Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (book XX; 7th century). As far as inks are concerned, the methods used in both the Latin West and the Byzantine East display continuity with Greco-Roman recipes. The most notable innovation was the development of a wide range of colours for the increasing enrichment of illustrations and ornamentation of texts (known as «illumination»).